DEFORESTATION: THE IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS
Introduction
Wood is an organic material sourced from trees, and different species yield various types of wood with distinct properties, making some more suitable for garden use than others. Wood is categorized into two groups: hardwoods and softwoods. These terms refer not to their density but to their reproductive methods. Hardwoods, such as oak, produce seeds with a protective outer coating, like a fruit or shell, and typically shed their leaves in colder weather. In contrast, softwoods, like pine, release their seeds without any covering and retain their leaves year-round. Generally, hardwoods tend to be denser and stronger, making them more durable than softwoods. However, there are exceptions to this rule. As a result, hardwoods usually last longer in a garden setting unless the softwood is inherently durable or has been treated to enhance its longevity.
The question of whether wood is a sustainable material is more complex as although it is a natural resource the rate at which it is being consumed is so high and often forest are not being replaced so supplies will run out at some point. Additionally, wood can be sourced illegally which can lead to the destruction of protected habitats causing significant effects on the local environment. However, there are certification organisation that aim to regulate the sourcing of wood and ensure its sustainability.
Why are Forests Important?
Forests are an extremely important system in the earths environment and cover around 30% of the land mass (1). They range from boreal forests near the earths poles to temperate in the mid latitudes, followed by to the tropical forests found between the tropics of cancer and Capricorn (2). The variety and distribution of forests has large benefits for both people but also the surrounding environment.
Forests play a vital role in generating oxygen and storing carbon through the process of photosynthesis, making the air around us safe to breathe. This is why forests are often referred to as the lungs of the earth. By taking in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and releasing oxygen forests act as carbons sinks as they store more carbon than they emit, resulting in them being the second largest store of carbon on earth behind the oceans (3). This is extremely important in terms of global warming as 25% of the carbon dioxide emitted by human activity is absorbed by forests, so without them temperatures would be significantly higher (4).
Forests are very diverse ecosystems containing around 80% of all terrestrial biodiversity (5). They provide habitats for the vast number of species supported by the forests as well as being important features in protecting the land they are on. For example, forests can act as a buffer to natural disasters such as flooding, strong winds and soil erosion (3, 6). Watersheds, which are the surrounding areas of a river system where the water is collected from, are also protected by forests. They can prevent or slow down chemical infiltration into water systems as well as increasing stability of the surrounding landscape.
The forest provides for humans as well, in a more tangible sense, with over 1.6 billion people relying on the forests for food or fuel (3). Additionally, forests provide wood which is one of the most commonly used natural resources as it can be used in such a variety of purposes, with the FAO suggesting that global wood consumption reached 4 billion m3 in 2022 (7).
Historical Deforestation
Despite the beneficial impact’s forests have, humans have always wanted and desired forest products, for food, fuel, land, or resource. It is estimated that since we started to cut down trees, 46% of trees have been felled planet-wide (8). There are examples of deforestation dotted throughout history. From Ancient Greece deforesting its lands for agricultural purposes to the deforestation of Europe to meet population growth and expansion (shipbuilding) purposes (9). Ancient deforestation has shaped the modern world, its historical events, and its ecological features. An example is the USA, which has lost 75% of its virgin forests since its removal began starting in the 1600s (10). However, the industrial age and the needs of modernity (population growth, for example) has accelerated deforestation, as seen in the Amazon Rainforest where in just 50 years, 17% of the forest has been lost (1).
Present-day Deforestation
Today, agriculture is one of the key causes for deforestation. Commercial agriculture for meat, timber, soy, cocoa, rubber, livestock, palm oil, fuel etc. continues to deforest the world (11). This is perpetuated by the demands of people today, an example being seen from China and Brazil, as demand for beef rose in China, deforestation in Brazil rose to meet the demand (11). Illegal logging is also a major cause for deforestation as it has led to a lot of forest being cleared but also to the extinction of species, causing major losses to biodiversity in many different environments across the world (12). High demand for goods such as meat or palm oil are drivers of deforestation often in developing countries as their environmental restriction are less or have weaker enforcement. Overgrazing which is the destruction the land by excessive grazing by livestock resulting in the land becoming unusable as soil erosion of nutrient deficiency takes over, is responsible for deforestation as farmers move on and clear another area once theirs is no longer viable. As a result of human demands, the world loses 88,000 km squared of natural forest every year, the equivalent of a football pitch being lost every 2 seconds (13).
Impacts of Deforestation
Removing and destroying forests reverses many of the benefits they provide. When harvested, they no longer provide a habitat for species, which can lead to the species becoming extinct. Even disrupting the forest can cause it to change, for example if canopy is removed, the ability of the forest to block heat in the day and retain it in the evening is compromised, meaning it can be more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and this impacts the species that live there (1). Soil erosion is also a big impact of deforestation as by removing a forest the tree roots can no longer bind and stabilize the soil making the soil at much high risk of both wind and water erosion (14). One of the biggest impacts is that of climate change. Forests are key in the fight to mitigate climate changes as they act as a carbon sinks storing more carbon than they release, however deforestation removes the stores and their ability to absorb more carbon (15).
How to Combat Deforestation?
Certification
The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) is a non-profit organisation that certifies wood according to strict criteria, with an emphasis on sustainably harvested wood. Along with ensuring the environment is well managed and maintained, the FSC also has policies in place that help local communities. Their key principles include supporting the social and economic interests of local communities and workers, along with maintaining, conserving and restoring ecosystem services in an effect to mitigate negative environmental impacts (16). Products that have the FSC logo mean that they have been certified and meet their standards however the true effectiveness of the organization has been questioned (17, 18). But overall, the FSC is usually a good indicator that a wood has been sourced sustainably. Other certification boards, such as the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) exist and advocate sustainable management of the forests.
Laws
The EU has laws and policies in place to reduce the impact of wood usage on the world, one of the biggest being FLEGT (Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade) in 2003 which had the aim to reduce illegal logging and promote sustainable, legal wood (19). Later in 2013, EUTR (EU Timber Regulation) was passed which made it criminal for illegal timbers to be sold on the EU market. This should mean that most wood on the EU market is fairly sustainable, however, there are examples where this is not the case (20). In 2023 the EU introduced a new regulation which aims to promote the consumption of ‘deforestation free products’ particularly to do with agricultural commodities, with anyone who trades in these commodities in the EU must be able to prove the goods haven’t come from recently deforested land or contributed to forest degradation (21). In the same year the UK also introduced a new policy to help stop the illegal wood trade, they introduced unlimited fines and prison sentences for illegal felling, although this doesn’t directly stop illegal oak being imported in (22).
Reclaimed Wood
Reducing new wood consumption all together is a great way to limit the amount of wood needing to be felled and using reclaimed wood is a great alternative. It is wood that has been salvaged from old buildings, boats, pallets etc (23). This is often less expensive than new woods and less likely to crack due to years of being dry already. Old wood is recycled, meaning that new trees will not need to be harvested, which helps save the forests and reduces the demand for fresh wood (24). Some rare and unique woods can be reclaimed too. Whilst this may be sustainable for forests, there is only a finite amount of reclaimed wood, meaning it will eventually run out. However, its recycled property and the fact it can, usually, be sourced locally will help the environment in the long run.